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Women at Hope College in the 1930's and 1940's

Enrollment at Hope College

Historical Context

According to the 1916 Hope College semicentennial bulletin, Holland, Michigan was founded in 1847 by Albertus Van Raalte and other immigrants from the Netherlands. As they started settling and laying foundations for the future, the obvious need for a school took precedent. However, the community lacked the resources to establish the Christian school that they desired so they reached out to the Reformed Church of America (RCA) that provided resources for their journey to Holland [1]. In October of 1851, a Pioneer School was founded to the relief and excitement of the community. Eventually, it was reorganized as Holland Academy in 1857. Finally, the school was incorporated as Hope College in 1866 [2].

Hope College was created with the intention of training teachers and ministers and preparing missionaries to serve abroad [3]. This reflected the importance of its relationship with the RCA; the RCA supplied resources and the college supplied people. The first cohorts that matriculated from Hope were small with the first consisting of only eight men in 1866. Six men graduated the next year. Financial struggles restricted growth in the college which prompted the opening of Hope College to women in 1878. Slowly, cohorts increased with the upward growth condensed mostly around the turn of the century. By 1927, there were 513 total students enrolled at the college [4].

National Trends

National trends indicate that there was a parity between men and women in college enrollment from 1900 to 1930 [5]. Moreover, higher education enrollments increased after 1915 and doubled by 1924. Overall enrollments rose during the Great Depression, stalled, and resumed growing in the latter half of the 1930s [6]. Specifically, male enrollment increased during the 1930s and the Great Depression because many men sought ways to increase their employability. Also, many men had little else to do so working towards a degree was a productive way to spend time [7].

During World War II, male enrollment sharply decreased as they were enlisted and shipped off to battle. This changed after the end of the war as the G.I. Bill was created in order to provide benefits and assistance to veterans. Some of these benefits included finances for higher education and as a result, many men enrolled in college. This was significant in furthering the national shift from elite higher education to mass higher education that began in the interwar period (1918-1939). Schools had begun shifting from elite higher education which served students of privileged social backgrounds or those with impressive talent to mass education which served anyone who met the admissions qualifications. Moreover, elite higher education emphasized culture as it sought to form character and prepare students for leadership. Meanwhile, mass higher education aimed to prepare students for a broad variety of vocations [8]. Traits of elite higher education and mass higher education were not mutually exclusive and one college could inhabit traits of both. However, the interplay between the two shifted who attended higher educational institutes and for what purpose.

Male college graduates continued to increase after World War II with the expansion of men who were eligible for the G.I. Bill after serving in the Korean War (1950-1953). The trend of mass higher education led to the expansion of college and the subsequent creation of higher education as a requirement for entry into jobs [9]. The national maximum in college enrollment gender imbalance was in 1947 [10]. However, by 2021, the gender ratio has flipped and there are more women than men enrolled nationally and at Hope [11].

Hope College Data Analysis

Comparison to National Trends

During the span of our research, 1925-1950, Hope broadly matched these trends, though there was some variability. The main deviation was that enrollment began decreasing in 1927 and continued through the 1930s. Therefore, the Great Depression was not the only factor in the shrinkage of total enrollments. Moreover, at Hope, there was never a parity between male and female enrollments. Except for during World War II when men were drafted, men were always more numerous at Hope. However, Hope followed the Post-WWII boom in male enrollments. Similarly, 1947 was the year with the most extreme gender imbalance. Overall, Hope conformed to broad trends in enrollment but deviated with specifics.

The Great Depression

The overall pattern that enrollment at Hope College followed was a decline in all students after 1927 when 513 students were enrolled. This number was not surpassed again until 1940 when 525 students were enrolled. The decrease happened during the years 1929 (434 people), 1930 (423), 1931 (420). Then, enrollment increased slowly with occasional dips. According to national trends, this increase may have been due to the lack of employment opportunities available for men. Therefore, education would ease boredom and provide potential job opportunities [12]. Another reason may have been that incoming students were able to find resources to fund their college education when before they were unable to. Regardless, Hope benefitted from the gradual expansion of enrollment.

World War II

During 1941 and 1942, enrollment stayed consistent with only six more students counted in 1942. There was a slight decrease in enrollment in 1943 with 529 students. Enrollment sharply decreased in 1944 with 300 students registered at Hope which is the minimum of this data set. This is directly related to the start of American involvement in World War II and the draft. However, 276 men took part in the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) that used Hope’s facilities. With the men included, the total number of students was 576 which continued the upward trajectory that Hope’s enrollment had previously taken.

In 1945, the total number of students increased from 1944 (without the ASTP included) with 312. There were no figures presented for the ASTP because it had ended the year prior. After the war, enrollment increased by 224.4% in one year with 700 students enrolled in 1945. The next year, 1946, jumped by 185.7% from 1945 with 1300 students registered for classes. The next years (1947-1948) increased marginally until 1949 with 1189 students listed. Then, enrollment began to decrease in 1950 with 1124 students.

Gender Demographics

Looking at gender demographics, which were self-reported by the school in the bulletin after 1935, reveals distinct gender ratio patterns throughout the 15 years analyzed. Men were consistently enrolled more than women except for 1944 and 1945 during World War II. By 1947, this imbalance was as extreme as men outnumbering women two to one. This ratio juxtaposes the year prior, 1946, as 1946 was the year closest to gender parity in this time period. In 1946, there were 408 men and 339 women. However, this data may be skewed because in 1946, 1947, and 1948, students were deducted for double counting but we do not know what gender they were. Therefore, we have kept them included in the data set. In the bulletin, 47 people were listed as being deducted for counting twice in 1946. 113 were deducted in 1947. However, the gender parity in 1946 could make sense if men took a gap year after the war while recovering emotionally and physically. Regardless, male students clearly outnumbered female students from 1935-1950 with the 1935-1941 being the closest to gender parity and the war (with more female students) and post-war years (with many more male students) being the furthest from parity.

References:
[1] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1916), 10, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/49; 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 14.; 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 15.
[2] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 1.
[3] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 13-14.
[4] 1927. V65.01. February Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1927), 62, http://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/90.
[5] Claudia Goldin, Lawrence F. Katz, and Ilyana Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 133, 10.1257/jep.20.4.133.
[6] Roger L. Geiger, The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 429, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7ztpf4.1?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents.
[7] Goldin, Katz, and Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women,” 136.
[8] Geiger, The History of American Higher Education, 428.
[9] Geiger, History of American Higher Education, 428.
[10] Claudia Goldin, Lawrence F. Katz, and Ilyana Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 133, 10.1257/jep.20.4.133.
[11] Goldin, Katz, and Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women,” 134.
[12] Goldin, Katz, and Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women,” 136.

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ASTP Arrives on Campus

Because so many men left during the war movement, Hope College suffered from the decrease in students paying tuition. The student population diminished by approximately half and Hope struggled to remain open. An Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) solved this problem in 1943 by contracting with Hope College to train soldiers for specific careers in the military.
The Announcement of Specialized Training Programs for the Army and Navy Press Release stated, “the Army will contract with selected colleges and universities for the use of their facilities and faculties in effecting such training of selected soldiers in courses prescribed by the Army. This plan will enable the Army to make selections for this training of qualified young men on a broad democratic basis without regard to financial resources” [1].
The ASTP selected Hope College for a non-Federal Education Institution to train students in basic engineering. Several members of the Hope College faculty, including Robert Cavannaugh, Milton Hinga, Clarence Kleis, Albert Lampen, and Albert Timmer, provided instruction in math, physics, meteorology, navigation, physical education, civil aeronautics regulation, and aircraft identification. These programs stemmed from the fear that the war would continue and the United States would lack the necessary men to fill specialized technical positions. President Wichers notes in his correspondence that Hope College was fortunate to be the last college to receive an ASTP program [2].
Formerly, Hope College housed an Army Pilot School in 1942 to instruct any men who failed the physical and mental tests or were over the enlistment age of 26. Hope partnered with the Northern Air Service of Grand Rapids to train ten men in groundwork and flying. These trainees then transferred to an advanced Army school to continue their training. Thus, the college was prepared to work with military troops and this program solved most of the college’s financial problems.

It also appealed to members of the Holland and Hope College community. One alumni wrote to Wichers stating, “I just finished reading the booklet which you sent me...All of us are shouldering additional responsibilities with the hope and prayer that this war may end soon, and it certainly gives me a real 'lift' to know that Hope College is taking such an active and important part in the war effort” [3].
President Wichers corresponded regularly with the ASTP headquarters to prepare for the arrival of the troops. Since most men who regularly attended Hope College had enlisted, the ASTP resided in the Emersonian fraternity house and the Western Seminary Zwemer Hall dormitory. However, the troops occupied space in almost all Hope buildings, except Voorhees Hall, which remained an all girls dormitory.
Before the economic situation at Hope College improved, additional costs were incurred by housing the troops. Stanley Roe of the Corps of Engineers wrote to Wichers describing the required improvements that Hope would need to make to the buildings after an inspection by the Army. Some of the improvements did not require financing by Hope, such as the replacement of fire extinguishers or additional pillows and beds for the troops. However, renovations to the fire alarm system, exit doors, bathrooms, drinking fountains, building codes, etc. amounted to $4,050.00 to be paid by the college [4]. Hope made the necessary arrangements, and in November of 1943, the ASTP arrived at Hope College.
The ASTP changed the atmosphere of the campus in addition to the physical buildings. The atmosphere for women at Hope already changed multiple times since the beginning of World War II until they became the majority on campus with the bulk of the men leaving. This raises questions regarding whether the need for the ASTP income and desire to support the war effort impacted the educational experience of the women on campus.
The male students came onto campus and occupied nearly all spaces but Voorhees Hall. The ASTP headquarters requested the dimensions of all Hope College buildings and Wichers replied with the dimensions. The ASTP wrote back asking why Voorhees and Van Vleck were not  included in the dimensions given. Wichers explained these were not recommended buildings for the ASTP to occupy since Voorhees was historically an all women’s hall and Van Vleck became an all women’s dorm in 1942. After the ASTP sent this letter, Wichers replied with the dimensions of the buildings to be used as the ASTP saw fit [5]. Based on accounts from students at the time, it seems that Voorhees remained a female dorm, while Van Vleck served as both a dorm and an infirmary for the ASTP.
Additionally, each day as the soldiers marched along the sidewalks the women moved out of the way. Trudy Vander Haar recalled, “We students obediently made way for them, stepping off the sidewalk if necessary. On one particular wintry day the two columns parted just enough for me to walk between them on the sidewalk. I slipped on the ice and fell down right in the middle. I was too embarrassed to notice what happened next” [6].
Despite the indications that the ASTP impacted the educational experience of these women, Wichers remained adamant that the women’s education did not suffer. A pamphlet sent to the alumni entitled “We’re in the Army Now” quoted Wichers saying, “Nor has the civilian program been neglected. There are two hundred seventy six boys and girls on the campus following the usual studies. All extracurricular activities are carried on with the exception of intercollegiate athletics which is a casualty for the duration” [7]. The enrollment data compiled by Maria indicates that the two hundred seventy six boys referred to the ASTP men and there were 75 civilian men and 225 civilian women on campus.
The ASTP men followed busy training schedules that often had them up early in the morning and training until late evening. All of the civilian and military courses were separate, so there was not much overlap between the female students at Hope and the ASTP.
Libby Hillegonds states, “An ASTP group joined us on campus during our second year and held their ceremonies around the flag pole each day. Our lives were quite separate, but some interaction must have taken place as five Hope students married ASTP men” [8] Most of the interactions between Hope students and the ASTP men occurred either on Sunday when both the men and the women had time off or at the all college mixers sponsored by either Hope or the Army. The Army hosted a ball when they were there, which promoted mingling between the groups.
Overall it seems the women appreciated the ASTP presence on campus because it filled the absense of the Hope College men who enlisted in the military. However, The Anchor dedicated a page to the ASTP troops and one publication aired the feelings of both the ASTP men and the Hope college women from their interactions and perceptions of each other. The articles appear lighthearted, but bring practical feelings to light.
Furthermore, there was a sense the ASTP men were not “Hope Men.” Jennifer Hill argued in her paper, “‘A Miss Amiss?’ Dorm, Dress, and Dating of 1940s Hope College Women” that women in the 1940s came to Hope College to find a Christian husband with similar values [9]. When the ASTP men arrived, Barbara Bilkert Mulder recalled Coach Hinga, the football coach at Hope, saying, “Now, girls, don’t get involved. Just wait until ‘our boys’ come home!” [11]. The ASTP men impressed Wichers with their excellent character, fine scholastic ability, and religious attitudes, even if some of them were methodist or baptists [10]. These men often were from other parts of the country and were not members of the Reformed Church of America, which may have supported the notion the ASTP were not "Hope Men."
An Anchor article from November 1943 addresses the ASTP and the conceptions about dating as it reprimands the Hope community for judging the military men differently than the civilian men:
“We would like to ask why the sudden arrival of 250 well-filled uniforms should suddenly change the "system?" Why didn't the 250 civilian fellows who were at Hope last year rate the same "chance" or "opportunity" as the 250 army fellows who are at Hope this year? Since when has a uniform changed a person? Does a khaki pants either add to or detract from anyone's personality or character? Certainly if it does, it shouldn't!” [12].
This article further supports the idea that the ASTP men and previous Hope College men were percived differently, but it asserts Hope women treat the ASTP men favorably because of their uniforms.

Overall, many women remembered the ASTP troops boosting morale on campus. Myra Berry reflected, “One would not suspect that with the above negative comments, there actually was good rapport between the G.I.s and the civilian student body. Spirits sagged when it was announced that the ASTP program would end before the expected time” [13].
The ASTP troops left in March of 1944. There were multiple accounts regarding why they left after only five months. Roy Berry, a member of the ASTP program, recalled families were unhappy with the training program causing it to be discontinued [14]. The Holland Sentinel noted a draft shortfall, which caused cancellations and the Anchor explained the ASTP men were needed elsewhere. My research into the Military Records did not confirm or negate any of these accounts. It is possible that portions of all of these explanations are correct.
There was a ceremony in the chapel to conclude the ASTP program before the men departed for their next assignments and the female students at Hope College were once again the large majority on campus [15].

References:
[1] United States Army Headquarters Sixth Service Command, “Announcement of Specialized Training Programs for the Army and Navy-News Release,” Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI, 2-3.
[2] Wynand Wichers, December 24, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[3] R.G. Huizinga, January 11, 1944, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[4] Stanley Roe, September 18, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[5] Correspondence between Hope College and Army, July 1943-September 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[6] Eileen Nordstrom and George Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads: The War Years (Holland, Michigan: Hope College, 2008), 99.
[7] Wynand Wichers, December 6, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[8] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 59.
[9] Jennifer Hill, “A Miss Amiss?’ Dorm, Dress, and Dating of 1940s Hope College Women,” papers, January 2003, (H03-1479.60), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
[10] Wynand Wichers, December 24, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[11] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 116.
[12] "Why Priority Ratings?" Hope College Anchor, November 10, 1943.
[13] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 40.
[14] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 48.
[15] “Chapel Assembly Closes Hope’s Successful ASTP Program,” Hope College Anchor, March 22, 1944.

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Table of Contents
Hope College's First Female Graduates
Introduction to Pathways
A.S.T.P at Hope College
Hope Class of 1930
Pop Up Definition - Hope College Catalog/Bulletin
Pop Up Definition - RCA
Total Number of Enrolled Students at Hope College from 1925-1950 This bar graph shows the total number of enrolled students at Hope College from 1925-1950. This data was self-reported by the school in the course catalogs for each academic year. This data only includes students from the college; the preparatory and music schools are not included. Moreover, the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) that used college facilities during 1943 and 1944 are not included.
Total Number of Enrolled Students at Hope College from 1925-1950 Broken Down by Gender This bar graph shows the total number of enrolled students at Hope College from 1925-1950. This data was self-reported by the school in the course catalogs for each academic year. This data only includes students from the college; the preparatory and music schools are not included. Moreover, the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) that used college facilities during 1943 and 1944 are not included. The blue bar indicates the total number of students. The red bar indicates the number of men. The yellow bar indicates the number of women. For the years 1946, 1947, and 1948, students were deducted for double counting but we do not know what gender they were. Therefore, we have kept them included in the data set. 47 people were deducted for double counting in 1946. 113 were deducted in 1947 and 143 were deducted in 1948. There is no gender data available before 1935.