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Women at Hope College in the 1930's and 1940's

ASTP Arrives on Campus

Because so many men left during the war movement, Hope College suffered from the decrease in students paying tuition. The student population diminished by approximately half and Hope struggled to remain open. An Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) solved this problem in 1943 by contracting with Hope College to train soldiers for specific careers in the military.

The Announcement of Specialized Training Programs for the Army and Navy Press Release stated, “the Army will contract with selected colleges and universities for the use of their facilities and faculties in effecting such training of selected soldiers in courses prescribed by the Army. This plan will enable the Army to make selections for this training of qualified young men on a broad democratic basis without regard to financial resources” [1].

The ASTP selected Hope College for a non-Federal Education Institution to train students in basic engineering. Several members of the Hope College faculty, including Robert Cavannaugh, Milton Hinga, Clarence Kleis, Albert Lampen, and Albert Timmer, provided instruction in math, physics, meteorology, navigation, physical education, civil aeronautics regulation, and aircraft identification. These programs stemmed from the fear that the war would continue and the United States would lack the necessary men to fill specialized technical positions. President Wichers notes in his correspondence that Hope College was fortunate to be the last college to receive an ASTP program [2].

Formerly, Hope College housed an Army Pilot School in 1942 to instruct any men who failed the physical and mental tests or were over the enlistment age of 26. Hope partnered with the Northern Air Service of Grand Rapids to train ten men in groundwork and flying. These trainees then transferred to an advanced Army school to continue their training. Thus, the college was prepared to work with military troops and this program solved most of the college’s financial problems.

It also appealed to members of the Holland and Hope College community. One alumni wrote to Wichers stating, “I just finished reading the booklet which you sent me...All of us are shouldering additional responsibilities with the hope and prayer that this war may end soon, and it certainly gives me a real 'lift' to know that Hope College is taking such an active and important part in the war effort” [3].

President Wichers corresponded regularly with the ASTP headquarters to prepare for the arrival of the troops. Since most men who regularly attended Hope College had enlisted, the ASTP resided in the Emersonian fraternity house and the Western Seminary Zwemer Hall dormitory. However, the troops occupied space in almost all Hope buildings, except Voorhees Hall, which remained an all girls dormitory.

Before the economic situation at Hope College improved, additional costs were incurred by housing the troops. Stanley Roe of the Corps of Engineers wrote to Wichers describing the required improvements that Hope would need to make to the buildings after an inspection by the Army. Some of the improvements did not require financing by Hope, such as the replacement of fire extinguishers or additional pillows and beds for the troops. However, renovations to the fire alarm system, exit doors, bathrooms, drinking fountains, building codes, etc. amounted to $4,050.00 to be paid by the college [4]. Hope made the necessary arrangements, and in November of 1943, the ASTP arrived at Hope College.

The ASTP changed the atmosphere of the campus in addition to the physical buildings. The atmosphere for women at Hope already changed multiple times since the beginning of World War II until they became the majority on campus with the bulk of the men leaving. This raises questions regarding whether the need for the ASTP income and desire to support the war effort impacted the educational experience of the women on campus.

The male students came onto campus and occupied nearly all spaces but Voorhees Hall. The ASTP headquarters requested the dimensions of all Hope College buildings and Wichers replied with the dimensions. The ASTP wrote back asking why Voorhees and Van Vleck were not included in the dimensions given. Wichers explained these were not recommended buildings for the ASTP to occupy since Voorhees was historically an all women’s hall and Van Vleck became an all women’s dorm in 1942. After the ASTP sent this letter, Wichers replied with the dimensions of the buildings to be used as the ASTP saw fit [5]. Based on accounts from students at the time, it seems that Voorhees remained a female dorm, while Van Vleck served as both a dorm and an infirmary for the ASTP.

Additionally, each day as the soldiers marched along the sidewalks the women moved out of the way. Trudy Vander Haar recalled, “We students obediently made way for them, stepping off the sidewalk if necessary. On one particular wintry day the two columns parted just enough for me to walk between them on the sidewalk. I slipped on the ice and fell down right in the middle. I was too embarrassed to notice what happened next” [6].

Despite the indications that the ASTP impacted the educational experience of these women, Wichers remained adamant that the women’s education did not suffer. A pamphlet sent to the alumni entitled “We’re in the Army Now” quoted Wichers saying, “Nor has the civilian program been neglected. There are two hundred seventy six boys and girls on the campus following the usual studies. All extracurricular activities are carried on with the exception of intercollegiate athletics which is a casualty for the duration” [7]. The enrollment data compiled by Maria indicates that the two hundred seventy six boys referred to the ASTP men and there were 75 civilian men and 225 civilian women on campus.

The ASTP men followed busy training schedules that often had them up early in the morning and training until late evening. All of the civilian and military courses were separate, so there was not much overlap between the female students at Hope and the ASTP.

Libby Hillegonds states, “An ASTP group joined us on campus during our second year and held their ceremonies around the flag pole each day. Our lives were quite separate, but some interaction must have taken place as five Hope students married ASTP men” [8] Most of the interactions between Hope students and the ASTP men occurred either on Sunday when both the men and the women had time off or at the all college mixers sponsored by either Hope or the Army. The Army hosted a ball when they were there, which promoted mingling between the groups.

Overall it seems the women appreciated the ASTP presence on campus because it filled the absense of the Hope College men who enlisted in the military. However, The Anchor dedicated a page to the ASTP troops and one publication aired the feelings of both the ASTP men and the Hope college women from their interactions and perceptions of each other. The articles appear lighthearted, but bring practical feelings to light.

Furthermore, there was a sense the ASTP men were not “Hope Men.” Jennifer Hill argued in her paper, “‘A Miss Amiss?’ Dorm, Dress, and Dating of 1940s Hope College Women” that women in the 1940s came to Hope College to find a Christian husband with similar values [9]. When the ASTP men arrived, Barbara Bilkert Mulder recalled Coach Hinga, the football coach at Hope, saying, “Now, girls, don’t get involved. Just wait until ‘our boys’ come home!” [11]. The ASTP men impressed Wichers with their excellent character, fine scholastic ability, and religious attitudes, even if some of them were methodist or baptists [10]. These men often were from other parts of the country and were not members of the Reformed Church of America, which may have supported the notion the ASTP were not "Hope Men."

An Anchor article from November 1943 addresses the ASTP and the conceptions about dating as it reprimands the Hope community for judging the military men differently than the civilian men:

“We would like to ask why the sudden arrival of 250 well-filled uniforms should suddenly change the "system?" Why didn't the 250 civilian fellows who were at Hope last year rate the same "chance" or "opportunity" as the 250 army fellows who are at Hope this year? Since when has a uniform changed a person? Does a khaki pants either add to or detract from anyone's personality or character? Certainly if it does, it shouldn't!” [12].

This article further supports the idea that the ASTP men and previous Hope College men were percived differently, but it asserts Hope women treat the ASTP men favorably because of their uniforms.

Overall, many women remembered the ASTP troops boosting morale on campus. Myra Berry reflected, “One would not suspect that with the above negative comments, there actually was good rapport between the G.I.s and the civilian student body. Spirits sagged when it was announced that the ASTP program would end before the expected time” [13].

The ASTP troops left in March of 1944. There were multiple accounts regarding why they left after only five months. Roy Berry, a member of the ASTP program, recalled families were unhappy with the training program causing it to be discontinued [14]. The Holland Sentinel noted a draft shortfall, which caused cancellations and the Anchor explained the ASTP men were needed elsewhere. My research into the Military Records did not confirm or negate any of these accounts. It is possible that portions of all of these explanations are correct.

There was a ceremony in the chapel to conclude the ASTP program before the men departed for their next assignments and the female students at Hope College were once again the large majority on campus [15].

References:
[1] United States Army Headquarters Sixth Service Command, “Announcement of Specialized Training Programs for the Army and Navy-News Release,” Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI, 2-3.
[2] Wynand Wichers, December 24, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[3] R.G. Huizinga, January 11, 1944, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[4] Stanley Roe, September 18, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[5] Correspondence between Hope College and Army, July 1943-September 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[6] Eileen Nordstrom and George Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads: The War Years (Holland, Michigan: Hope College, 2008), 99.
[7] Wynand Wichers, December 6, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[8] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 59.
[9] Jennifer Hill, “A Miss Amiss?’ Dorm, Dress, and Dating of 1940s Hope College Women,” papers, January 2003, (H03-1479.60), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
[10] Wynand Wichers, December 24, 1943, Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI.
[11] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 116.
[12] "Why Priority Ratings?" Hope College Anchor, November 10, 1943.
[13] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 40.
[14] Nordstrom and Zuidema, Hope at the Crossroads, 48.
[15] “Chapel Assembly Closes Hope’s Successful ASTP Program,” Hope College Anchor, March 22, 1944.

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Social Treatment of Women at Hope in the 1930's
As women began to attend Hope in increasing numbers in the early 20th century, they entered into a culture that expected them to behave, interact with others, and participate in society in very specific ways. Historian Mary C. McComb studies the way that the middle class in the United States reacted and coped with the Depression. She analyzes college students during the 1930's period in her book Great Depression and the Middle Class, as most young people able to afford higher education belonged to the upper or middle class. In the context of the Great Depression, McComb addresses the way students’ view of the Depression impacted the way they interacted with one another. She also specifically analyzes the roles and treatment of female students at colleges and universities [1]. At Hope, the experiences of women in the 1930’s, based on editorials in the Anchor, reflected the national trends of how society expected women to behave in the middle class Depression culture that McComb discusses.
McComb first addresses the culture of the 1930s' impact on college students' approach to and goals in college. As the economy became the central focus in all of American culture, students became well versed in economic terms. This terminology shaped their view of themselves and others around them to fit an economic context. McComb argues that when goods became scarce, middle class students began to think of themselves, their social standing, and the way their peers perceived them as their personal commodity to sell. In this culture, social society expected women specifically to sell themselves as marriage prospects for their male peers [2]. This may be another reason for the popularity of college events and social societies at Hope during the 1930’s. Students marketed themselves as social assets.
This kind of self marketing culture created specific common goals among men and women in getting a higher education. For women, McComb argues that women fell into two categories with different goals. Some women enrolled in college in order to enjoy the social experience and find a husband. Another group of women instead enrolled to prepare for careers as teachers, social workers, nurses or other “female” positions [3]. Each path had specific consequences for women within the financially focused culture.
While McCombs' analyzes of trends throughout the greater U.S. is helpful, women living during this time period had their own individual experiences. Historical analysis and generalizations are helpful in understanding a time period in a broad context and the overarching behaviors of groups of people; however, actual individuals experienced the time period in completely independent ways. They may have experienced some form of the theories McComb suggests such as self marketing, having the idea of marriage after college, or focusing on their education in their minds, but they as humans held more of a complexity that can not be placed easily into theories or generalizations. Looking at Hope women with these theories in mind, we can see similarities; however, we cannot place these women into definite categories or assume their complete experiences based on certain contextual trends found by scholars such as McComb.
Many women at Hope expressed interest in the social aspects of college and in marriage. Ethel Leestma Swets (1929-1933) saved many of her invitations and acceptances from men to her sorority, Sibylline events, wedding invitations, and a newspaper article titled, “How to be Happy Though Married, Which Was Worked Out By Married Couple Who Proved its Worth" [4]. First, the inclusion of invitations to weddings and coed events in her scrapbook indicate these events as important to her. Secondly, the article includes an alphabetical list of advice from a couple on how to make marriage fruitful [5]. Margaret J. Kole (1929-1933) also saved her invitations and acceptance letters to social coed events [6]. Women at Hope during the 1930's focused heavily on social prospects and cared deeply about the marriages developing around them. Marriage may or may not have been their end goal in college, as McComb suggests, but we have found evidence that they at least valued the importance of marriage in their own lives and in the lives of those around them highly.
Maria’s research on women in what we now call STEM also indicates that Hope women challenged gender roles leading to similar issues stemming from the expectations of men that McComb discusses. According to Maria’s research, a number of women majored in STEM fields and eventually became missionaries. As Maria hypothesizes, this may allude to women who did not want to get married but rather wanted to focus more on their education. McComb argues that men found women who focused on their own education threatening. While majoring in STEM does not directly indicate commitment to education more than any other major, men typically accounted for a large portion of the population of STEM classes during this time. Women entering into STEM majors may represent a body of women willing to go against their present day culture or society’s expectations to pursue an education they wanted. McComb argues that men at many universities felt threatened by academically driven women who chose to go against traditional gender norms. In addition to having more women than ever before in their classes next to them, any woman who spoke up, held leadership positions, sought employment on campus, etc., posed a new threat to their status as the superior sex. This may have caused problems when the Emergency Relief provided Hope the ability to employ students during the Depression. McComb writes that these women, and most likely the women at Hope who fought to hold their own authority, experienced anti-feminist sentiments and belittling from their male peers [7].
This problem rang true through the halls of Hope College as much as any other college or university at the time. The Anchor throughout the 1930’s included multiple editorials that alluded to how men saw, treated, and received women interested in their own education. First, we must look at what men desired in a woman and how they expected women to act. On May 14, 1930, one humor poem in the Anchor titled “Modesty” explained how a woman should act. The poem explained behavior in efforts to be modest, including that she always spoke of her condition or actions such as feeling “ill”, waking up, or going to sleep in pleasant and polite terms. The author explained that a “modest maid” never spoke out of tongue or too abruptly about how she felt or what she did [8]. Published in the college paper, this poem sends a message to women, teaching them how they should behave, whether in humor or not.
Another example of how society, and more specifically men, thought women should behave lies in an Anchor article from October 6, 1937 titled, “Reporter Phones Fraternities for Description of Ideal Girl”. This article included interviews with the Knickerbocker, Addison, Fraternal, and Cosmopolitan fraternities. Knickerbockers first described their ideal woman’s physical features and when asked about her personality, they answered that she shouldn’t be sophisticated, just sweet. She should also be athletic and enjoy going out. Addisons described their perfect woman as “athletic, yet sophisticated. She knows what she wants and how to get it.” Fraternal members called for women with sympathy but with definite ideas as to what to do. Lastly, the Cosmopolitans thought that an athletic, sophisticated woman who was brilliant, witty, and enjoyed having fun would be the ideal girl [9]. All of these men who participated in the survey seemed to value a woman who enjoyed having fun. However, many of the men also said they wanted a sophisticated woman who was decisive and smart.

However, one editorial by a woman explaining men’s lack of respect for women who took on leadership roles and feeling of superiority to women and the subsequent response from another male student reveal that men's desire for sophistication and intelligence had limits. In the editorial by the female student titled, “She Whoops to Conquer” from April 23, 1930, an anonymous woman explained that male Hope students didn’t give credit to their female counterparts for intelligence and made excuses for a team’s success when lead by a woman, arguing that any success “just happened”. She called women to refuse to take condescending orders. We have attached the full article here [10].
In response, one man completely disagreed with the woman’s claims and called for men to demand superiority over women in the April 30, 1930 issue of the Anchor. In his article, “MEN! She Whooped To Conquer! Let’s Roar to Victory!,” he called the woman’s editorial ‘virulent and seditious’ and alluded to his belief that women had declared war on the men of Hope. We have included the editorial in response here. [11]
We must acknowledge that these editorial articles came from only one woman and one man at Hope. We cannot assume all women felt the same as the woman who wrote, “She Whoops to Conquer” and we cannot assume all men at Hope felt the same as the writer of “MEN! She Whooped To Conquer! Let’s Roar to Victory!” in response. However, we can recognize the validity of this woman’s experience and we can analyze this man’s response. To our 21st century perspective, the man’s response verifies the complaints of the woman. Aligning with what McComb argues, this man obviously felt threatened by this woman’s complaint. Speaking out and demanding respect resulted in an aggressive response [12].
Lastly, Metta J. Ross, a faculty member who began teaching Freshman English in 1926 and retired in 1960, explained in an oral history interview that the way women behaved in class changed drastically throughout the years that she taught. She described women as “meek little girls” and hypothesized that about 70% of Hope women married men they met at Hope. In contrast, after World War II and other wars that occurred during her employment, she noticed a change. She stated, “The girls’ attitude toward their men friends changed, not because of me but because of the changes in life, these men coming back from wars mutilated and nerve sick. You people missed all that of course. They began to assert themselves more, to realize that after all they were people and maybe they did have something worthwhile to say, and they said it. And they said it very well" [13]. Ross’ recollection of how women acted before and after having greater independence while men were absent from their classroom experiences allows us to see the impact of World War II and what women’s experiences in the classroom entailed from an outside perspective.
Women faced a complex and difficult task while attending Hope during the 1930's. Society challenged them to market themselves socially but also didn’t allow them to succeed in certain areas such as intellectual endeavors. Certain societal expectations and the expectations of male students limited their individuality. However, these women operated with a force within this society. They supported their friends in their marriages, sought to make meaningful social connections through social events and marriage prospects in order to succeed, and challenged norms by majoring in male dominated academic fields and speaking up for themselves. They gained confidence over time and began to demand respect.

References

[1] Mary C. McComb, Great Depression and the Middle Class: Experts, Collegiate Youth and Business Ideology, 1929-1941 (New York, New York: Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2006).
[2] McComb, Great Depression and the Middle Class, 6-13.
[3] McComb, Great Depression and the Middle Class, 14-17.
[4] Scrapbook, 1929-1936, Swets, Ethel Leestma Papers, 1929-1936 (H18-1988), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI.
[5] Scrapbook, Swets, Ethel Leestma Papers, 1929-1936 (H18-1988).
[6] Memory Book, 1925-1933, Kole, Margaret J. (1909-1994). Papers, 1925-1933 (H95-1250), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI., Scrapbook, 1935-1943, Meengs, Florence. Papers, 1935-1943 (H15-1901), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI.
[7] McComb, Great Depression and the Middle Class, 33-37.
[8] "Modesty", Hope College Anchor, May 14, 1930.
[9] "Reporter Phones Fraternities for Description of Ideal Girl", Hope College Anchor, October 6, 1937.
[10] "She Whoops to Conquer", Hope College Anchor, April 23, 1930.
[11] "MEN! She Whooped To Conquer! Let's Roar to Victory!", Hope College Anchor, April 30, 1930.
[12] McComb, Great Depression and the Middle Class, 33-37.
[13] Dick and Phyllis Huff, “Metta Ross Oral Interview,” March 15, 2002,
H88-0131, Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI, 15-16.

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