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• 1 2021-06-29T15:26:21+00:00 Female Faculty Bios 25 Read more about several women faculty at Hope College in the 30s and 40s plain 2021-08-16T17:39:42+00:00

   Dean of Women: 

  Winifred Durfee 

  Winifred Hackley Durfee began her career at Hope College in 1909 as the Dean of Women and resided in Voorhees Hall, the only women’s hall at the time. During her 27 year career, she became the head of the French and Drama Departments before her retirement in 1936. 

  Prior to her time at Hope, Durfee taught at several high schools and earned her Master’s Degree at Northwestern University and the University of Wisconsin. She stopped teaching after marrying Abner Durfee in 1892 until his death in 1901. Durfee decided to resume teaching after his death and spent time at several other academies and colleges before finishing her career at Hope College [1]. 

  Durfee developed and enforced many of the Voorhees House Rules during her time as Dean of Women. She also established a structure of student government for the halls. Conserative elders in the Reformed Church of America established guidelines for student behavior and restricted certain subjects like dance and dramatics from the campus. Durfee’s reputation for implementing and upholding rules for women helped establish the first drama class, which was taught by Durfee in 1924. Martha Jane Gibson wrote a letter to Miss Blank on April 29, 1963 explaining this connection: 

  “As to her coaching of dramatics. She began this when I was there. Up to that time there had been little if any at all done in the way of dramatics in the college. This was so because of the very conservative feeling about the theater or anything dramatic among the older people and many of the clergy in the Reformed churches around us. It began however to be apparent that there must be a break with this old conservatism if the college was to keep pace with life. More and more of our students seeking teaching jobs were finding themselves at a disadvantage because they had not done work in dramatics, as many high schools wanted them to coach” [2]. 

  Durfee’s legacy lived on at Hope’s Campus, which is indicated by letters from Lubbers in 1947, who maintained, “Voorhees Hall and life was lived on a creative and inspiring level” when Durfee oversaw the hall [3]. The name Winifred Durfee is known on campus today because of the survival of Durfee Hall named after her. Built in 1950, Durfee Hall originally served as a female dormitory before converting into an all-male dorm. 

  Elizabeth Lichty

  Elizabeth Lichty began working at Hope College in 1939 as the Dean of Women and a professor of French. Lichty oversaw Voorhees Hall, including the functions of the hall and the residents staying there. Under Lichty, Voorhees Hall attempted an Honor System to encourage the female residents to follow the Voorhees House Rules, which indicates that rules were broken by the women of Voorhees [4]. 

  The Honor System: Rules Governing Women’s Residence Halls pamphlet stated, “In the past there have been rules that one felt it was clever to break or overlook. In the Spring of 1945 the girls of the dormitories voted unanimously to no longer countenance such an attitude. From now on, girls are on their honor to keep the following rules” [5].  

  Based on articles from the Anchor it appears that this endeavor was unsuccessful because news of the Honors System disappeared after this mention in 1945 and female students only remembered a governing board in the hall. 

  Lichty also took interest in freshman women by meeting with each female student during their first year at Hope College as well as establishing a “Big Sister” system to provide each freshman woman with an upperclassman mentor. 

  In 1937, Lichty became a PhD candidate at the University of Wisconsin and in 1940 became the first woman faculty member to earn her PhD. 

  Ultimately, Lichty took a position at Kalamazoo University in 1947, but she contributed to multiple facets of student life during her 8 years at Hope. Lichty sponsored the Women’s Activity League, May Day celebration, All College Sing, the Women’s Athletic Association, and established the Alcor Senior Girls Honorary Sorority, which is known today as Mortarboard. 

  Lichty Hall, a co-ed dorm on campus, was renamed after Elizabeth Lichty for her work as a Dean of Women. 

  Emma Reeverts 

  The woman chosen to succeed Elizabeth Lichty was a Hope College graduate from 1920 named Emma Marie Reeverts. Hope hired Reeverts in 1946 as an Associate Professor of English after the post-war boom created a high demand for more faculty members at Hope. Reeverts served as the Dean of Women from 1947 until her retirement in 1963 [6]. 

  Correspondence between Irwin Lubbers and Winifred Durfee revealed that Reeverts came highly recommended by Durfee and Lubbers acknowledged that, “We are very happy at the prospect of having Miss Reeverst as our new Dean of Women...We hope that she will also get closer to the town girls than is possible when a Dean is living in a dormitory” [7]. 

  Reeverts resided in Gilmore Cottage, which diverged from past practices when the Dean of Women lived in Voorhees Hall. The 1949 Milestone explains that Reeverts served as an advisor for Alcor society, the Women’s Activity League, the Pan Hellenic Board that oversees Greek Life, and the Women’s House Board. Reeverts also supervised the female students on and off campus [8]. Past descriptions for the Dean of Women did not mention overseeing women off campus and the Dean of Women typically lived in Voorhees Hall. Voorhees served as the only female dorm for years before the conversion of Van Vleck into a female dorm during the war years and Durfee Hall during the post-war boom. It is possible that Reeverts requested her own space or Gilmore Cottage provided a neutral location for Reeverts to split her time between the women on and off campus. 

  Instructors/Professors: 

  Laura Alice Boyd 

  Laura Alice Boyd began her teaching career at Hope College in 1921 and taught German until her retirement in 1955. Originally appointed as an instructor in German, Boyd was promoted to a full professor of German in 1929. 

  To supplement the German course content, Boyd established the German Club and worked with Metta Ross to establish the Palette and Masque theater group. In addition to working with these additional groups, Boyd wrote poems and riddles for a local paper [9]. 

  Metta Ross

  Metta Ross began her time at Hope College in 1926 after several years teaching at Holland High School. She accepted a position as an instructor of history and also split her time in the English department during her 34 years at Hope College until she retired in 1960. However, her letters and archival records indicate that teaching history was her preferred subject. The archives are filled with detailed notes on different history classes that Ross developed while at Hope College [10]. 

  In addition to work in the classroom, Ross was active in extracurricular activities on campus. She coached female oratory, was the first faculty advisor of the Anchor, was involved in the Women’s Athletic Association, and founded several groups on campus, such as the Palette and Masque dramatic society with Laura Boyd and the International Relations Club [11].

  Students often described Ross as a challenging and demanding instructor. Most students appreciated this style, but a few felt Ross was too tough on students, which was reflected in an archived file containing course evaluations and other personal correspondence [12]. The course evaluations are subjective and one study published in the Cambridge University Press indicates that students are more likely to expect women instructors or professors to be warm and understanding [13]. If students anticipated this and instead Ross was a tough professor, which archival research implies she was, then students may have evaluated her more harshly. Regardless, Ross compiled several letters throughout the years thanking her for her attention to their success and pushing students to succeed. One specific student, Mary Lou Talman expressed gratitude that Ross evolved from an instructor to a friend since Talman graduated [14]. 

  Ella Hawkinson 

   

  In 1948, Ella Hawkinson was hired as a professor of history and the head of the history and political science departments. Hawkinson studied at the State Teachers College in Minnesota and earned her PhD from the American University in Washington in 1941 [15]. 

  The Hope College Bulletin highlighted Hawkinson’s passion for the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This organization’s main goal was to establish a culture of peace. On vacations from school Hawkinson would take foreign students to tour the United Nations sessions in New York. Her work as the president of the Michigan Council for UNESCO earned Hawkinson a Fullbright lectureship at a university in Trondheim, Norway in 1953 [16]. 

  After Hawkinson’s leave of absence in 1953 she suffered from an illness and passed away on January 27, 1954. The Hawkinson Memorial Lectures were established to recognize Hawkinson’s contributions to the college and her passion for international affairs. 

  Eva Van Schaack 

  Eva Van Schaack was a graduate from the Hope College class of 1929 and the first female member of the science department as a professor of biology from 1956 to 1969. Van Schaack received her degree at Hope, studied botany at Hope for a year following graduation, and attended the school of higher studies of the faculty of philosophy at Johns Hopkins to receive a Doctorate in Philosophy [17].  

  Nella Meyer

  Born in Holland, Michigan, Nella Meyer began her college career at Hope in 1917 before transferring in 1919 to the University of Wisconsin. There, she received her Bachelor of Arts and went on to receive her Masters of Arts from Columbia University in 1940. By 1941, Meyer completed all requirements for a doctorate degree from Columbia except the written thesis. 

  It was unclear based on Meyer’s file why she transferred from Hope College in 1919, but Meyer began teaching at Hope sporadically while earning her higher education degrees. From 1923 to 1925, Meyer served as an instructor in French, then taught French and piano from 1929 to 1937, and also taught French and piano from 1946 to 1965. Meyer became an associate professor at Hope College in 1946 before earning the title of professor from 1954 until her retirement in 1965. 

  Time at other programs spent studying or teaching accounts for the gaps in Meyer’s time at Hope College. From 1941-1945, she taught music at both the Turtle Bay Music School in Manhattan, New York and the Brooklyn Music School in Brooklyn, New York [18]. 

  Meyer passed away on December 13, 1974. A former student and a professor of Bible and religion at Hope College, Maurice Eugene Osterhaven, gave Meyer’s Memorial Sermon. He described Meyer as a woman who loved her family, students, and institution, as well as a woman who demanded respect in the classroom. 

  Osterhaven stated, “I can still hear her correct our pronunciation and encourage us to a higher level or work. Some of us were almost twice her size and strength- in mere muscle, that is- but we knew who was the boss in the classroom. For her we had love and respect" [19]

  Louise Jean Van Dommelen

  Louise Jean Van Dommelen spent several years at Hope College as an instructor and then professor of physical education. Dommelen began her time at Hope in 1946 as an instructor of women’s physical education, became assistant professor of physical education in 1949 to 1950, and became associate professor of physical education from 1951-1953 [20]. 

  According to a report from Hope College on Dommelen’s workload, she instructed students in teaching kinesiology, volleyball, softball and golf, basketball and tennis, folk dancing and square dancing, archery and badminton, remedial gymnastics, and teaching physical education in secondary schools. 

  In addition to these courses, Dommelen was on the faculty study committee, the athletic committee, and the health and recreation committee and directed women’s intramurals, advised the Women’s Athletic Association, coached women’s tennis, and directed May Day sports [21]. 

  Dommelen received a leave of absence from Hope College in 1951 to attend Michigan State College and complete her master’s degree thesis on physical education curriculum. She applied her findings to the Hope College women’s physician education program and made recommendations to Lubbers for changes to this program [22]. 

  In 1950, Dommelen received orders from the Air Force Reserves to report for active duty to Denver, Colorado in January of 1951. These orders were deferred to June of 1951 in order for Dommelen to complete her master’s degree from Michigan State College. President Lubbers wrote multiple letters to the Air Combat Command (ACC) requesting another deferment for Dommelen because of Hope’s desire for her to continue leading the women’s physical education courses. It is unclear if this deferment was granted because the ACC correspondent replied that a deferment past July 7, 1951 was not possible in Dommelen’s case. However, the archival record indicates that Dommelen served Hope College until 1953 [23]. 

  Esther Snow

  In 1937 Esther Snow began her time at Hope College as an instructor and professor of piano and organ. Her husband, Robert Snow became the first organist in Dimnent Memorial Chapel and Esther Snow aided with music related tasks and received recognition for her talent as an organist and pianist. Therefore, after Robert Snow’s death in 1936, Esther Snow resumed his duties in the music department. In the music department, Snow directed the Women’s Glee Club.

  After 18 years in the music department, Snow decided to discontinue teaching piano and organ because arthritis began to impact her ability to play. She attended Michigan State University for a year and resumed teaching at Hope College with her Master’s Degree in German. Snow worked as an assistant professor from 1955 until her retirement in 1965. While in the German Department, Snow became involved in the Vienna Summer School program, a well-known study abroad program founded by Paul Fried. Thus, she accompanied the students to Europe each summer to learn German and experience the culture [24].

  Archivists, Assistants, and Alumni Relations: 

  Janet Mulder 

  Janet Mulder was a graduate of Hope’s class of 1915. She worked at Holland High School as an English teacher for the majority of her career. However, she transitioned after 33 year of teaching into a library assistant position in 1952. Then, in 1963, Mulder became Hope College’s first full-time archivist before her retirement in 1968 [25]. 

  Mulder worked with Michigan Historical Collections from the University of Michigan to establish the system for the archives because not many colleges in the area began archival work in the 1960s [26].

  The Holland Evening Sentinel published an article in 1964 about Mulder’s work:

  From 1952 to 1954 and again since 1962, Miss Janet B. Mulder, archivist at Hope College, has been accumulating and systematically organizing information pertaining to the 113-year history of the college. Although the recording of the college’s history and other materials have not been completed, many college students, graduate students, and alumni are already using the Archives for research” [27]. 

  Mildred Schuppert 

  Mildred Schuppert graduated from Hope College in 1931 and began working as Dr. Wynand Wichers’s assistant, who was the president of the college at the time. During the Great Depression, Schuppert was the only secretary at Hope College [28]. 

  Schuppert served as Wichers assistant throughout his presidency. Thus, when Lubbers became president in 1945, he suggested she take a leave of absence and attend library school at the University of Michigan. A letter described Lubbers recommendation: 

  “Miss Schuppert is a young woman of capacity and diligence. She is intensely interested in library work. We believe that we should discontinue office work and be given a position more in harmony with her temperament and interest. We feel responsible for giving Miss Schuppert a place in our organization where she can be happy and effective” [29]. 

  Schuppert returned to Hope College and began working as a librarian. Afterward, she accepted a librarian position at Western Theological Seminary in 1950. She worked there for twenty-four years before retiring in 1974. 

  Marian Stryker

  Marian Stryker attended Hope and graduated in 1931. After her husband’s death in 1946, she began her role as director of alumni relations at Hope College in 1947 until her retirement in 1974. While in this role, Stryker significantly increased the donations made by alumni, which was aided through her role as the editor of the Alumni Magazine and publisher of the first Alumni Directory in 1951 [30]. 

  The February 1995 edition of News from Hope College discussed Stryker’s contributions to the alumni network through an increase in alumni support. Stryker increased Hope College donations from 170 donors with an overall sum of $10,643 to 3,820 alumni donors worth $424,170 at the time of her retirement. Following her retirement in 1974, Stryker received the Distinguished Alumni Award [31]. 
  
  References: 
  [1] Biographical, Durfee, Winifred Hackley (1861-1950). Papers, 1796-1963 (H88-0034), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [2] Kristen Blank, “Winifred Hackley Durfee: Her Life and Her Times,” May 22, 1963 (H88-0045), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland MI.
  [3] Irwin Lubbers, July 22, 1947, Durfee, Winifred Hackley (1861-1950). Papers, 1796-1963 (H88-0034), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [4] Biographical, Lichty, Elizabeth Ellen (1899-1965). Papers, 1945-1966 (H88-0094), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [5] The Honor System: Rules Governing Women’s Residence Halls, n.d, (1899-1965). Papers, 1945-1966 (H88-0094), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [6] Biographical, Reeverts, Emma Marie (1896-1973). Papers, 1946-1973 (H88-0129), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [7] Lubbers, July 22, 1947, Durfee, Winifred Hackley (1861-1950). Papers, 1796-1963 (H88-0034), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [8] Emma Reeverts, The Milestone, 1949 (Holland, MI: Hope College, 1949), 16, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/milestone/45/. 
  [9] Biographical, Boyd, Laura Alice (1884-1962). Papers, 1922-1963 (H88-0016), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [10] Biographical, Ross, Metta J. (1890-1984). Papers, 1896-1984 (H88-0131), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [11]  Alumni Association of Hope College, "Hope College Alumni Magazine, Volume 13, Number 3: July 1960" (1960). Hope College Alumni Magazine. https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/alumni_magazine/50
  [12] Course Evaluations, Ross, Metta J. (1890-1984). Papers, 1896-1984 (H88-0131), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [13] Mitchell, Kristina M. W, and Jonathan Martin. “Gender Bias in Student Evaluations.” PS, Political Science & Politics 51, no. 3 (2018): 648–52. https://doi.org/10.1017/S104909651800001X.
  [14] Talman, February 26, 1947, Ross, Metta J. (1890-1984). Papers, 1896-1984 (H88-0131), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [15] Biographical, Hawkinson, Ella A. (1896-1954). Papers, 1984-1956 (H88-0068), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [16] “Hope College Bulletin,” May 1950, Hawkinson, Ella A. (1896-1954). Papers, 1984-1956 (H88-0068), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [17] Biographical, Van Schaack, Eva (1904-1981). Papers, 1911-1976 (H88-0177), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [18] Biographical, Meyer, Nella K. (1899-1974). Papers, 1925-1975 (H88-0105), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [19] Eugene Osterhaven, "Nella Meyer Memorial Sermon," Meyer, Nella K. (1899-1974). Papers, 1925-1975 (H88-0105), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [20] Biographical, Van Dommelen, Louise Jean. Papers, 1951 (H88-1980.70), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [21] Report of Work Load, n.d., Van Dommelen, Louise Jean. Papers, 1951 (H88-1980.70), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [22] Louise Jean Van Dommelen, “Thesis: An Investigation of the Physical Education Curricula in Smaller Colleges and Universities, as Compared to Hope College” (Michigan State College, 1951), Van Dommelen, Louise Jean. Papers, 1951 (H88-1980.70), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [23] Biographical, Van Dommelen, Louise Jean. Papers, 1951 (H88-1980.70), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [24] Biographical, Snow, Esther M. (1895-1974). Papers, 1942-2002 (H88-0140), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [25] Biographical, Mulder, Janet B. (1895-1985). Papers, 1924-1984 (H88-0106), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [26] Janet Mulder, October 17, 1966, Mulder, Janet B. (1895-1985). Papers, 1924-1984 (H88-0106), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [27] “Archives at Hope College In Hands of Miss Mulder,” Holland Evening Sentinel, February 15, 1964, Mulder, Janet B. (1895-1985). Papers, 1924-1984 (H88-0106), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [28] Biographical, Schuppert, Mildred W. (1909-1993). Papers, 1871-1993 (W94-1183), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [29] Lubbers, July 18, 1947, Schuppert, Mildred W. (1909-1993). Papers, 1871-1993 (W94-1183), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [30] Biographical, Stryker, Marian A. (1909-1994). Papers, 1947-1974 (H88-0149), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [31] "News From Hope College," February 1995, Stryker, Marian A. (1909-1994). Papers, 1947-1974 (H88-0149), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  
  

• 1 2021-06-28T14:14:19+00:00 Tuition at Hope 24 Information about Tuition at Hope plain 2021-08-15T17:44:31+00:00

  Background Information

  According to Hope College’s first catalog, created during its founding in 1866, a fee of ten dollars was required from each student for “contingent expenses.” Other than that blanket fee, no official charges were established - including tuition. Students were not turned away from the school if they could not afford to pay. If deemed worthy and had “promise of usefulness,” beneficiary aid was offered to students to assist in covering costs [1]. The first time that a consistent, formal tuition was charged and included in the yearly course catalogs was in 1916. The amount charged was 24 dollars [2]. After that, tuition remained a consistent cost for students. Room and board was listed as a consistent cost but aid was available for those unable to pay. Plus, many students were local and able to commute.

  My assumption upon starting this project was that any women who attended Hope College before 1950 were middle to upper-class women who could afford to pay tuition. On one hand, this reality is true. Tuition during the scope of our research (1925-1950) coincided with two major world events - the Great Depression and World War II. Therefore, it is not unreasonable to find that wealthy people were able to afford tuition and attend school during this time. However, our exploration found that a significant portion of the attendees struggled to find the financial means to attend Hope. The focus on tuition is potentially misleading because other extraneous costs like travel, room, board, books, laboratory fees, and various sundries are glossed over. While Hope’s tuition may have been more affordable in comparison to other schools, the full cost of attending college added up quickly. Therefore, in this analysis, I am comparing the full price for college in one academic year including tuition, room, board, and sundries that is listed in the course catalogs. Hopefully, this is more accurate in portraying the cost of attending college during this time.

  Making Ends Meet

  
  

  As a result of hidden, higher costs, many students relied on beneficiary aid, scholarships, loans, donations, and part time employment to afford higher education. One woman, Alida J. Kloosterman graduated from Hope in 1948 after majoring in mathematics. Kloosterman detailed her financial struggles in her biography for the Reformed Church of America’s Board of Foreign Missions. Kloosterman took a gap year after her mother’s death and worked to pay off debts and mortgages on the house. She saved enough for one year in college when room, board, tuition, and sundries were $410-450 per year. While at Hope, she worked summers, vacations, evenings, and Saturdays, to finance her remaining years. Kloosterman worked in the dorm collecting and dispensing linen, in laundry as a cleaning girl, in the library, and filing [3].
  
  
  Kloosterman was far from being the only student struggling to make ends meet. Helen Zander, a 1928 graduate, was financed by her church in Schenectady [4]. She would have paid $340 per year from 1925-1927. In 1928, the total given cost increased and she would have paid $380. In a 1927 letter to Mrs. Durfee, the Dean of Women from 1909-1936, one female student begged for grace from the college. The student apologized for not having the ability to pay back what she owed and promised to get a job to pay back the money with two years of interest within the next year [5]. In 1927, the listed price for attending Hope was $340 for the whole year which is now equivalent to $5,260.13. These are just a few stories of many students who toiled in order to finance their education.

  Data Analysis

  In general, the overall listed price of attending Hope College for one year rose from 1925-1950 though there was a dip in 1938 and 1939. To give summary statistics, the minimum for this data set is $340 which was the given total price from 1925-1927. The maximum was $750 in 1950. The mean or average is $436.92. The median is $397.50. The mode is $380. As previously mentioned, the scope of this research project includes two major international events - the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s. Therefore, college pricing was influenced by the global context.

  The Great Depression

  During the Great Depression, pricing initially increased significantly and then decreased. In 1929, the total cost for one year at Hope College was $380. The 1928-1929 Bulletin, which is the equivalent to modern course catalogs, that listed this amount was published in 1928. During the 1929-1930 academic year, costs increased to $400. The 1930 Bulletin was published in February 1929, a few months before Black Tuesday in October. The 1931 school year was the first year where the Bulletin would be published during the Great Depression as it was published in February of 1930. Room, board, and tuition costs still increased during the Great Depression as total costs remained at $400 but deflation made the same amount of money have higher value. The highest cost was $410 in 1932. Pricing at Hope was not this high again until 1943.

  After 1932, listed costs for the 1932-1933 school year decreased to $390. In 1934, it increased again to $400. Then, it decreased to $380 in 1935. In order to understand the cost of attending Hope, which may appear arbitrary at first glance, it is important to look at the economic health of the school. Overall enrollments began decreasing before the Great Depression, though this trend continued for the first few years of the 1930s. In 1929, months before the stock market crash, President Dimnent sold Hope’s stock portfolio. This helped to ease some of the economic distress that Hope was subjected to during the Great Depression. The money from the stocks was invested into the endowment. During the Depression, the school was able to pull money from the endowment in order to finance operating costs [6]. The health of the endowment contrasted with the struggle that the other sections of the school experienced. Enrollment rates decreased marginally in contrast to national trends where enrollment increased [7]. Professors and staff took a pay cut [8]. Dr. Nykerk, an important faculty member at the college, ended up losing his wealth and had to live in the female residence hall [9]. In 1930, to the distress of the Board of Trustees, President Dimnent stepped down from his role as President [10]. While relying on funds from donors and the RCA, Hope stayed afloat. 

  World War II

  During the war, total enrollment decreased from 529 in 1943 to 300 in 1944. Enrollment increased by 12 to 312 in 1945. During these years, total pricing for one year at Hope was in the range of $410-$450. In 1943, the Army Specialized Training Program began at Hope with 76 enlisted men. Participants were able to train and take courses. Hope provided engineering courses for this program as the Army College had an emphasis on mathematics and science. The civilian college had an emphasis on liberal arts education [11]. This program was funded by the government and helped subsidize operating costs.
  
  

  When the ASTP ended in April of 1944, there was a loss of revenue for the college as the government had reimbursed the college for its resources. The first semester from 1944-1945 was difficult until the war ended in 1945 and veterans began to return to campus [12]. Veterans were encouraged to attend Hope because it was approved by the Veterans Administration to qualify for benefits from the G.I. Bill. Also, Hope gave academic credit to veterans for service school training. Enrollment mushroomed from 312 to 700 in 1946 and 1300 in 1947. Post-war financial difficulties challenged the college, but another concern was the ability to provide resources to the influx of students. 

  Nationally, wartime inflation increased operating expenses and decreased resources in higher education. There were less students whose tuition money could cover costs. Therefore, many colleges were unequipped to handle the influx of students who enrolled during peacetime [13]. As a result, tuition and other expenses rose to match the rise in students. After World War II, the total cost of attending Hope College increased exponentially, as more students enrolled. For the 1944-1945 school year, a range for pricing was given at $410-450. That price was determined and published in 1944. In 1945-1946, pricing jumped to $500. Then, $600 in 1947 and $700 in 1948. In 1949, pricing increased but with a smaller margin as it cost $720 to attend Hope. In 1950, attending Hope was priced at $750. After World War II, “sundries” were not included in calculation of total costs. Therefore, the real cost of attending Hope was even higher.
  
  References:
  [1] 1865-1866. Catalog (Holland: Hope College, 1865), 35, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/2/.
  [2] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1916), 184, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/49.
  [3] “Alida J. Kloosterman”, Board of Foreign Missions Reformed Church in America, January 1950. Western Biographical File, Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
  [4] “Helen Zander: Educational Work in Japan,” Woman’s Board of Foreign Missions, July 1942. Western Biographical File, Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan. 
  [5] "Letter to Winifred Durfee," January 26, 1927. Durfee, Winifred Hackley (1861-1950). Papers, 1796-1963. (H88-0045), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
  [6] "October 1930", Board of Trustees (H88-0246), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.; "14 June, 1932", Board of Trustees (H88-0246), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.; "10 June, 1933", Board of Trustees (H88-0246), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.; Wynand Wichers, A Century of Hope (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968), 204-207.
  [7] Claudia Goldin, Lawrence F. Katz, and Ilyana Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 136, 10.1257/jep.20.4.133.
  [8] Edward Dimnent, "Letter to Adelaide Dykhuizen," Adelaide Dykhuizen, Teaching Contracts, 1931-1068 (H88-0046), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI.
  [9] "Biographical, 1891-2014," Nykerk, John Bernard (1861-1936). Papers, 1885-1961, 2014 (H88-0111), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI.
  [10] "June 1930", Board of Trustees (H88-0246), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.; "Edward Daniel Dimnent" by Paul Wackerbarth, 1964, Biographical, 1889-1965 Dimnent, Edward D. (1876-1959). Papers, 1892-1972. (H88-0040), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI.
  [11] "Correspondence between Hope College and Army", July 1943-September 1943,  Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI. 
  [12] "Correspondence between Hope College and Army."
  [13] Roger L. Geiger, The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 427, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7ztpf4.1?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents.
  
  
  
  

• 1 2021-06-28T14:13:22+00:00 Enrollment at Hope College 23 This page describes enrollment trends at Hope College plain 2021-08-15T17:42:43+00:00

  Historical Context

  According to the 1916 Hope College semicentennial bulletin, Holland, Michigan was founded in 1847 by Albertus Van Raalte and other immigrants from the Netherlands. As they started settling and laying foundations for the future, the obvious need for a school took precedent. However, the community lacked the resources to establish the Christian school that they desired so they reached out to the Reformed Church of America (RCA) that provided resources for their journey to Holland [1]. In October of 1851, a Pioneer School was founded to the relief and excitement of the community. Eventually, it was reorganized as Holland Academy in 1857. Finally, the school was incorporated as Hope College in 1866 [2]. 

  Hope College was created with the intention of training teachers and ministers and preparing missionaries to serve abroad [3]. This reflected the importance of its relationship with the RCA; the RCA supplied resources and the college supplied people. The first cohorts that matriculated from Hope were small with the first consisting of only eight men in 1866. Six men graduated the next year. Financial struggles restricted growth in the college which prompted the opening of Hope College to women in 1878. Slowly, cohorts increased with the upward growth condensed mostly around the turn of the century. By 1927, there were 513 total students enrolled at the college [4].

  National Trends

  National trends indicate that there was a parity between men and women in college enrollment from 1900 to 1930 [5]. Moreover, higher education enrollments increased after 1915 and doubled by 1924. Overall enrollments rose during the Great Depression, stalled, and resumed growing in the latter half of the 1930s [6]. Specifically, male enrollment increased during the 1930s and the Great Depression because many men sought ways to increase their employability. Also, many men had little else to do so working towards a degree was a productive way to spend time [7]. 

  During World War II, male enrollment sharply decreased as they were enlisted and shipped off to battle. This changed after the end of the war as the G.I. Bill was created in order to provide benefits and assistance to veterans. Some of these benefits included finances for higher education and as a result, many men enrolled in college. This was significant in furthering the national shift from elite higher education to mass higher education that began in the interwar period (1918-1939). Schools had begun shifting from elite higher education which served students of privileged social backgrounds or those with impressive talent to mass education which served anyone who met the admissions qualifications. Moreover, elite higher education emphasized culture as it sought to form character and prepare students for leadership. Meanwhile, mass higher education aimed to prepare students for a broad variety of vocations [8]. Traits of elite higher education and mass higher education were not mutually exclusive and one college could inhabit traits of both. However, the interplay between the two shifted who attended higher educational institutes and for what purpose.

  Male college graduates continued to increase after World War II with the expansion of men who were eligible for the G.I. Bill after serving in the Korean War (1950-1953). The trend of mass higher education led to the expansion of college and the subsequent creation of higher education as a requirement for entry into jobs [9]. The national maximum in college enrollment gender imbalance was in 1947 [10]. However, by 2021, the gender ratio has flipped and there are more women than men enrolled nationally and at Hope [11].
   

  Hope College Data Analysis

  Comparison to National Trends

  During the span of our research, 1925-1950, Hope broadly matched these trends, though there was some variability. The main deviation was that enrollment began decreasing in 1927 and continued through the 1930s. Therefore, the Great Depression was not the only factor in the shrinkage of total enrollments. Moreover, at Hope, there was never a parity between male and female enrollments. Except for during World War II when men were drafted, men were always more numerous at Hope. However, Hope followed the Post-WWII boom in male enrollments. Similarly, 1947 was the year with the most extreme gender imbalance. Overall, Hope conformed to broad trends in enrollment but deviated with specifics.
   

  The Great Depression

  The overall pattern that enrollment at Hope College followed was a decline in all students after 1927 when 513 students were enrolled. This number was not surpassed again until 1940 when 525 students were enrolled. The decrease happened during the years 1929 (434 people), 1930 (423), 1931 (420). Then, enrollment increased slowly with occasional dips. According to national trends, this increase may have been due to the lack of employment opportunities available for men. Therefore, education would ease boredom and provide potential job opportunities [12]. Another reason may have been that incoming students were able to find resources to fund their college education when before they were unable to. Regardless, Hope benefitted from the gradual expansion of enrollment.
   

  World War II

  During 1941 and 1942, enrollment stayed consistent with only six more students counted in 1942. There was a slight decrease in enrollment in 1943 with 529 students.  Enrollment sharply decreased in 1944 with 300 students registered at Hope which is the minimum of this data set. This is directly related to the start of American involvement in World War II and the draft. However, 276 men took part in the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) that used Hope’s facilities. With the men included, the total number of students was 576 which continued the upward trajectory that Hope’s enrollment had previously taken.

  In 1945, the total number of students increased from 1944 (without the ASTP included) with 312. There were no figures presented for the ASTP because it had ended the year prior. After the war, enrollment increased by 224.4% in one year with 700 students enrolled in 1945. The next year, 1946, jumped by 185.7% from 1945 with 1300 students registered for classes. The next years (1947-1948) increased marginally until 1949 with 1189 students listed. Then, enrollment began to decrease in 1950 with 1124 students.
   

  Gender Demographics

  Looking at gender demographics, which were self-reported by the school in the bulletin after 1935, reveals distinct gender ratio patterns throughout the 15 years analyzed. Men were consistently enrolled more than women except for 1944 and 1945 during World War II. By 1947, this imbalance was as extreme as men outnumbering women two to one. This ratio juxtaposes the year prior, 1946, as 1946 was the year closest to gender parity in this time period. In 1946, there were 408 men and 339 women. However, this data may be skewed because in 1946, 1947, and 1948, students were deducted for double counting but we do not know what gender they were. Therefore, we have kept them included in the data set. In the bulletin, 47 people were listed as being deducted for counting twice in 1946. 113 were deducted in 1947. However, the gender parity in 1946 could make sense if men took a gap year after the war while recovering emotionally and physically. Regardless, male students clearly outnumbered female students from 1935-1950 with the 1935-1941 being the closest to gender parity and the war (with more female students) and post-war years (with many more male students) being the furthest from parity. 
  
  References:
  [1] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1916), 10, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/49; 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 14.; 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 15.
  [2] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 1.
  [3] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 13-14.
  [4] 1927. V65.01. February Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1927), 62, http://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/90.
  [5] Claudia Goldin, Lawrence F. Katz, and Ilyana Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 133, 10.1257/jep.20.4.133.
  [6] Roger L. Geiger, The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 429, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7ztpf4.1?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents.
  [7] Goldin, Katz, and Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women,” 136.
  [8] Geiger, The History of American Higher Education, 428.
  [9] Geiger, History of American Higher Education, 428.
  [10] Claudia Goldin, Lawrence F. Katz, and Ilyana Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 133, 10.1257/jep.20.4.133. 
  [11] Goldin, Katz, and Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women,” 134.
  [12] Goldin, Katz, and Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women,” 136.
  
  
  
  
  
  
   

• 1 2021-06-29T15:27:42+00:00 Being a Female Faculty Member 22 Describes characteristics of female faculty plain 2021-07-21T17:21:39+00:00

  There are several common themes that link the female faculty members at Hope College. Women tended to be single or widowed when they came to Hope College, aided by administrators of Hope College in various ways, and were members of the Reformed Church of America.
  
  Women composed a minority of the Hope College faculty based on observations in The Milestone ranging from 1925 to 1950. In 1925, 5 women and 12 men comprised the faculty, while in 1950 the faculty expanded to 14 women and 48 men instructors and professors out of 62 total faculty members. Typically, women occupied assistant positions to administrators or served as librarians at Hope College, rather than instructors or professors. Furthermore, women tended to dominate the language and music departments, while women were rare in the math and science departments. 

  Even among the women faculty, many only earned the title of instructor, rather than professor. In 1950, 40 of the 48 male instructors were considered professors, while 7 of the 14 women were granted the title professor.  A majority of the female faculty members earned the title instructor or assistant or associate professors, while a higher proportion of males became full professors of their subject, which impacts the amount of money a woman faculty member earned because of the pay discrepancies of the ranks of professors. 
  

  The balance between education and family was a controversial topic. One source published in 1929 in the North American Review presented the argument that motherhood is the most important task for women and the most successful mothers are intelligent women. The article declares “Raising children requires, for its proper fulfilment, more intelligence than any other task which the human race is ever called upon to do… But highly intelligent women have long been avoiding it because they appreciate, far more clearly than their dumber sisters do, the enormous difficulties of managing children so that they develop the best that is in them” [1]. This article attempts to persuade intelligent women to forgo careers and raise children because working and raising children is taxing. Furthermore, the author argues that intelligent women will find the most happiness when raising children and in a way it is their duty to the human race to raise children. Women likely were surrounded by the social expectations expressed in this article, which influences women's entry into higher education. 

  This article is one of many asserting that the home should be the highest priority for women instead of higher education. In addition to the North American Review, the media played a role in developing the idea that women should only be a homemaker and mother. The article, “The Celluloid Ceiling: Women Academics, Social Expectations, and Narrative in 1940s American Film” crafted an argument around the influence the media has on the image of female professors. This article pinpointed 63 films for study and only found female academics in 6 of the films. The women professors portrayed in these films surveyed painted female professors as beautiful and young women that left their positions to marry a man by the end of the movie or became old and plain women. Additionally, enrolling in higher education cost money and families were more likely to educate their sons than their daughters, which prevented some women from receiving the higher education necessary to acquire the title professor [2]. 

  The trends these articles discuss can be seen in the female faculty population at Hope College. Many of the women that worked at Hope College were single or recently widowed. For example, Metta Ross, Janet Mulder, Laura Boyd, Ella Hawkinson, and more were single women who focused on their teaching career. Several of the female professors, such as Metta Ross and Janet Mulder or Laura Boyd and Eva Van Schaack lived together as professors and retired Hope faculty. Winifred Durfee, Marian Stryker, and Esther Snow came to Hope after their husbands died. Esther Snow and Marian Stryker became widows and needed to support their younger children, thus they did not have the option to focus only on motherhood. Robert Snow, the son of Esther, wrote a biography of Esther Snow’s life. He made notes about her progression from a temporary faculty member to an instructor and eventual assistant professor stating, “In any case, I’m sure she was grateful for employment and didn’t worry as much about titles as she was about getting the job done, and the necessary remuneration involved” [3]. It is notable that Hope College hired majority single or widowed faculty members despite expectations for women to be homemakers and mothers. 
  
  I found several indications that President Lubbers or other administration members aided these women and made accommodations for personal matters. For example, Marian Stryker became an employee in the Office of Alumni Relations after her husband died leaving her the sole caregiver of her children. Lubbers wrote to Stryker explaining, “Due to family circumstances, it will be permissible for you to open your office as late as ten o’clock in the morning and to make substitution by taking home such work as can be done away from the office” [4]. Additionally, Lubbers encouraged Mildred Schuppert to attend library school at Michigan State University and he petitioned the Army to defer Louise Van Dommelen from active duty so she could continue directing female physical education [5]. Finally, Hope College offered Esther Snow her husband's position after his death. Snow aided her husband with his duties, thus she was qualifified for the position and needed income as a single mother. This desire by administrators may have been motivated by compassion, concern, or a sense of duty as members of the Reformed Church of America. 

  Lastly, female faculty were respected members of the Reformed Church of America since it still endorsed Hope College in the 1930s and 1940s. The women hired at Hope College attended the Reformed Church and the women faculty took an active role in their church. Several of these women, such as Esther Snow and Mildred Schuppert played the organ at churches in the Holland community. Additionally, tithes and offerings came out of the faculty member's paycheck. Correspondence from Mildred Schuppert indicated that Hope College paid 3% of the 6% tithe to the Reformed Church from Schuppert’s income [6].

  References: 
  [1] Walter B Pitkin, "Can Intellectual Women Live Happily?" The North American Review 227, no. 6 (1929): 703-704, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25110769.
  [2] Pauline J Reynolds, “The Celluloid Ceiling: Women Academics, Social Expectations, and Narrative in 1940s American Film,” Gender and Education, vol. 21, no. 2 (2009): 212–213, doi:10.1080/09540250802393289.
  [3] Robert Snow, "Musikalisch Frau Schnee: A brief biography of the life of Esther MacFarlane Snow,” Snow, Esther M. (1895-1974). Papers, 1942-2002 (H88-0140), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [4] Irwin Lubbers, April 1, 1947, Stryker, Marian A. (1909-1994). Papers, 1947-1974 (H88-0149), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [5] Irwin Lubbers, November 29, 1950, Van Dommelen, Louise Jean. Papers, 1951 (H88-1980.70), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [6] Mildred Schuppert, April 27, 1951, Schuppert, Mildred W. (1909-1993). Papers, 1871-1993 (W94-1183), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 

• 1 2021-06-29T16:53:19+00:00 Missionaries and STEM 19 This page details the link between majoring in STEM and becoming a missionary. plain 2021-07-28T18:36:19+00:00

  It is important to acknowledge that the findings of this research are inherently biased. In an attempt to try to find more information on the women who majored in STEM at Hope from 1925-1950, I cross-referenced the names from the Milestone  with records at the Joint Archives of Holland, where our research is based out of. Out of the 951 women recorded, only a small portion of them had files in the Archives. It was more likely that there would be information on them if they were a part of an established Dutch family in Holland. The archives had many files on these women’s husbands but rarely information on them. Of the women that did have files, most were prominent missionaries for the Reformed Church of America. 

  Context

  According to the Hope College 1916 Semicentennial Catalog, the founding had a clear religious purpose. The catalog explicitly states that 

  They wanted a Christian school to prepare, in a general way, for high grade American citizenship and the intelligent development of Christian character; but, more specifically, they wanted a school to serve the three-fold purpose— to equip competent teachers, to train ministers, and to prepare missionaries for the foreign field [1].

  This statement hints at the college’s long-standing mutualistic relationship with the Reformed Church of America (RCA). Dennis Voskuil, a scholar and interim president at Hope College, argues that the RCA supplied resources for the college and in return, the college supplied people in his chapter “Continuity and Change” in the Hope College at 150 [2]. This can be seen in the college course bulletin as the college emphasized prerequisites for seminary training and Christian ministry. Voskuil also argues that Hope College was valued by the RCA because of the volume of missionaries coming out of the school. By 1941, over ⅓ of Hope College alumni were missionaries (2,300 people). In 1926, out of 1,410 graduates, 60% were religious workers [3].

  The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was a major Protestant organization sending missionaries abroad. Even now, much of the missionary movement in the United States can be tied back to the ABCFM. Initially, women could only go abroad if they were wives of male missionaries [4]. Many women married in part because it was the most accessible pathway abroad. However, this changed in the 1830s as the ABCFM became desperate for missionaries. According to the Historical Dictionary of Women’s Education in the United States, this policy change resulted in “hundreds of unmarried women” finding employment as assistant missionaries and going abroad [5]. By 1880, women represented 57 percent of the missionary force [6].

  While researching women who majored in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics at Hope College from 1925-1950, there was a noticeable amount of students who entered the missionary field after graduating. This makes sense given that science and classical training were perceived to be dichotomous in the United States. Classical training was masculine and prepared men for the public sphere. Science was not as explicitly linked to gender. However, females and science were implicitly linked as science education was utilized by many female seminaries to teach “critical observation and… logical thought” [7].  Classical training was not essential for future female careers since they were most often entering the private sphere. 

  STEM and Missionary Work

  Similarly, missionary work during this time period was founded upon gendered separation and the idea of the “private sphere” as the woman’s domain. Women were seen as inherently pious and religious with special skills in nurturing and teaching [8]. Serving as a missionary complimented women’s perceived influence over religion and the family. Only eight of the women who majored in STEM during this time period (1925-1950) at Hope had files in the Joint Archives of Holland. Of the eight, seven were missionaries. Of that seven, three of them had parents who were missionaries and were raised to enter the field. Those women were Anne De Young, Mary Louise Talman, and Marjorie Van Vranken. Two of them, Helen Zander and Alida J. Kloosterman, decided to become missionaries through religious communities. Women were instrumental in recruiting, retaining, and becoming missionaries. 
  STEM was a logical primer for missionary work because it allowed women to take a pre-medical track and obtain education in nursing. While none of these women have a pre-medical track specified in the Milestone, a few of them specified that they took a pre-medical track in their archival files. This means that the women who majored in STEM might also have taken pre-medical tracks even though that is not noted in my data.

  Moreover, these women may have become missionaries because of the clear alternative to marriage and child-rearing. Women no longer had to be married or mothers in order to live abroad and have careers. The Church has a history of providing a certain amount of independence to women through positions as nuns, missionaries, and other religious work. Therefore, missionary work could have been correlated with STEM as well as other potential factors relating to marriage, motherhood, and family. 
  Of the eight women that have files in the Joint Archives of Holland, four were nurses while serving abroad. The other four women were not employed in the medical field but instead, specialized in education. Eva Van Schaack was the only woman who majored in STEM during this period with an archival file who did not become a missionary. She worked as an associate professor and professor at Hope College in the biology department [9]. 

  Higher Education

  Moreover, an interesting trend became apparent while analyzing these women’s files - all of them obtained some form of higher education. Eva Van Schaack and Bernadine Siebers De Valois both received doctorates, though Siebers De Valois’ was an honorary degree from Hope College [10]. Van Schaack obtained a PhD from John Hopkins University [11]. Helen Zander attended Columbia University and got an M.A. degree in rural education with emphasis on industrial arts after taking a furlough in 1940 [12]. Mary Louise Talman received an M.A. from Albany State Teacher’s College in 1944 [13]. Marjorie Van Vranken got a master’s degree in physiology from the University of Illinois in 1949 [14]. Jeanette Veldman recieved a M.A. from Columbia University in 1946 for Nursing Education and Administration [15]. Lastly, Bernadine Siebers De Valois obtained a M.D. in 1936 while specializing as an E.N.T [16].
  Though the sample size is small, the proportion of women who majored in STEM and received higher degrees after college is noteworthy. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, even though women participated in science before it was formalized in higher education, the professionalization of science pushed many women from the field. Women found barriers blocking them from graduate school, gaining doctorates, and getting jobs in equal value to their level of training. Some women were able to obtain entrance into colleges through attending women’s colleges, taking advantage of quotas in co-ed colleges, finding advocates on their behalf, or moving to Europe. Still, most women found themselves at the margins of science and the women who had gained entry in the field were the minority. 

  Nevertheless, women still pushed for space in education and science. Prior to 1900, nearly 30 percent of doctorates earned by women were in the sciences. By 1900, American women had earned 229 doctorates and at least 60% of the doctorates were in the sciences. However, women scientists lacked employment opportunities unless they found employment at a women’s college. If they did find employment at a college, they were typically valued as teachers over researchers. Government and industrial employment followed this same pattern of valuing teaching over researching which further marginalized female scientists. By the mid-twentieth century, land-grant institutions became significant employers of female scientists rather than just women's colleges [17].

  Career Paths

  Though these eight women from Hope College majored and obtained advanced degrees in STEM, most of their career trajectories followed the pattern described above as they became employed as teachers. Helen Zander, Mary Louise Talman, Eva Van Schaack, and Alida J. Kloosterman found teaching as their primary employment. Helen Zander specialized in English and stenography. Mary Louise Talman taught general science. There is no information on what Alida J. Kloosterman specialized in. Eva Van Schaack is the anomaly in that she obtained a doctorate, taught, and researched - though it is noted in her file that she did less research than other professors in her department. 
  Meanwhile, Jeanette Veldman, Anne De Young, Marjorie Van Vranken, and Bernadine Siebers De Valois found their primary employment in the health field. Regardless, teaching became an important part of their vocations as they trained future health professionals and locals. Bernadine Siebers De Valois, a practicing surgeon and doctor, emphasized the importance of education in both preventative and reactive health interventions. Her method emphasized educating mothers and caretakers in order to influence domestic life. This pattern is significant not because of an unimportance of teaching degrees but rather, the lack of female scientists. Teaching has been historically feminized and women rarely achieved higher positions. Even highly trained and degreed women in STEM rarely purely stayed in STEM. Teaching was a clear vocational route when employment for women had many barriers. 

  World War II gave women job opportunities as the men went off to war and positions opened up. However, as can be seen by these women’s stories, this change was not inherently lasting after the war. The veterans came back and entered higher education in large amounts and reclaimed their positions. The 1950s, introduced a need for “scientific womanpower” during the Cold War as the United States’ technological weaknesses were shown. Women were an untapped resource of trained, educated, and willing workers. Still, the national rhetoric “never matched the reality of women’s employment opportunities” [18]. Eventually, the Civil Rights and Feminist movements made gains for women’s rights. However, this is an issue still relevant today inside and outside of STEM.
  
  References:
  [1] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1916), 13-14, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/49.
  [2] Jacob Nyenhuis, Hope College at 150 (Holland: Van Raalte Press, 2019), 150.
  [3] Nyenhuis, Hope College at 150, 165.
  [4] Linda Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary of Women’s Education in the United States (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998), 48, EBSCOhost.
  [5] Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary, 49.
  [6] Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary, 48.
  [7] Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary, 350.
  [8] Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary, 350.
  [9] "Biographical, 1950-1969." Van Schaack, Eva (1904-1981). Papers, 1911-1976. (H88-0177), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
  [10] Bernadine Siebers De Valois, “Science Plus-Miracles in India."
  [11] "Biographical, 1950-1969."
  [12] “Helen Zander: Educational Work in Japan,” Woman’s Board of Foreign Missions, July 1942. Western Biographical File, Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
  [13] “Hope Graduate Buried in Peru,” Holland City News, July 24, 1947. Hope Biographical File, Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
  [14] “Marjorie Alice Van Vranken,” Board of Foreign Missions Reformed Church of America, September 1953. Western Biographical File,  Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
  [15] "Biographical Materials," Box 5.Veldman, Jeannette (1901-1994). Papers, 1912-1989. (W89-1012), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.; Greg Carlson and David M. Vander Haar, "Veldman, Jeannette Oral History Interview: Old China Hands Oral History Project I and II." in Old China Hands Oral History Project (former missionaries to China) (H88-0113) (Holland: Hope College, 1976), https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/old_china/?utm_source=digitalcommons.hope.edu%2Fold_china%2F15&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages.
  [16] “Dr. and Mrs. J. J. De Valois,” Board of Foreign Missions, October 1955. De Valois Family. Papers, 1938-2001. (W11-1384.10). Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, Michigan.
  [17] Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary, 351-352.; Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary, xvii-xix.
  [18] Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary, 352.
  
  

• 1 2021-07-01T13:50:20+00:00 Majors for Women at Hope 16 Majors for Women at Hope plain 2021-07-27T19:25:38+00:00

  Historical Context

  Hope College was founded in coordination with the Reformed Church of America (RCA) [1]. The 1916 Semicentennial Catalog reveals the intention behind the creation of the college as it says

  They wanted a Christian school to prepare, in a general way, for high grade American citizenship and the intelligent development of Christian character; but, more specifically, they wanted a school to serve the three-fold purpose— to equip competent teachers, to train ministers, and to prepare missionaries for the foreign field [2].

  Teaching, missionary work, and ministry were the three vocational pillars that guided the founders in creating the school curriculum. As a result, emphasis was placed on classical training in Greek, Latin, and English. Classical curriculums were often elemental parts of higher education for male colleges in the United States since it was meant to prepare men for the public sphere. This included politics, work, and law. Moreover, knowledge of Greek, Latin, and English were required for admission to graduate programs. As a result, classical training was seen as disciplined and masculine [3].
  The importance of classical training to Hope is evident in the 1866 Course Catalog where the only three options for courses of study were normal (teaching), English, and classical. The two men who took normal and English courses were temporarily absent from the school. Therefore, the classical course was the only active option for students [4]. This analysis does not include the Junior College or the School of Music. We only looked at Hope College. As the school expanded, more departments and courses of study opened up. By 1916, the semicentennial, there were six courses of study open to students - classical, philosophical, natural science, modern-language English, modern-language mathematics [5]. 

  By 1925, the first year analyzed in this study, there were six courses of study available - classical, science, modern language-English, mathematics, history, and Latin [6]. Those remained the same six courses available until 1930. There is no available data on majors recorded in 1931 since the course catalog does not list available courses and no Milestone was published. In 1932, eight courses were offered - business administration, classical, English, history, Latin, mathematics, modern language, and science [7]. These same courses were offered until 1936.
  From 1931-1932, the four year course schedule for each major that had been in the bulletins was no longer included. They were reintroduced in 1933 but only for Freshmen and Sophomores rather than Upperclassmen. After 1933, formal recommendations for four year plans were no longer included in the bulletin. However, in 1945, four year plans were listed for those on pre-professional tracks like nursing, dentistry, law, forestry, journalism, engineering, theology, social service, library science, and business administration. These plans were listed under “suggested professional curricula” [8]. This continued after the 1950 school year which is out of the scope of this research. No schedule recommendations were given during this time for majors. It is important to clarify that women could take different tracks like the pre-medical track or pre-professional tracks without them qualifying as their primary major. These would not be listed in the Milestone sometimes. Therefore, the lack of women in these fields during this time period (1925-1950) does not necessarily mean that they did not take them. For example, stenography was a certification that women could get but could not major in.

  Moreover, lists of available majors were not included in 1931 but were reintroduced in 1932.  This could have been due to the expansion of available majors. However, a more likely theory is that the college wanted to save money on printing costs or felt that it was unnecessary to include the information. By 1936, only “groups” were specified that students could take courses in rather than majors. These groups were English, foreign languages, science, and social studies in 1936 [9]. After 1936, music was added to the list of groups. Departments and majors fit under these umbrella categories but were not individually listed [10]. 
  
  The option of three science and math courses in the 1916 Semicentennial catalog (philosophical, natural science, and modern-language mathematics) reveal a significant shift towards incorporating hard sciences in addition to classical courses [11]. In 1942, a science building, Lubbers Hall, was opened which allowed room for physical expansion of the science department [12]. In 1943, the Army Specialized Training Program began at Hope. The College provided engineering courses for the troops, so Hope split into the Army College with an emphasis on mathematics and science and the other was civilian with an emphasis on liberal arts education [13]. More information on the creation of the STEM departments can be found on our page about the Founding of STEM at Hope and Women in STEM.
  
  References:
  [1] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1916), 15, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/49.
  [2] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 13-14.
  [3] Linda Eisenmann, Historical Dictionary of Women’s Education in the United States (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998), 350, EBSCOhost.
  [4] 1865-1866. Catalog (Holland: Hope College, 1865), 31-33, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/2/.
  [5] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin, 105.
  [6] 1925. V63. 03. November Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1925), 10-11, http://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/86.
  [7] 1931-1932. V70.01. February Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1931), 28, http://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/99.
  [8] 1944-1945. V83.01. February Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1945), 35, http://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/112.
  [9] 1935-1936. V74.01. February Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1935), 30, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/103.
  [10] 1936-1937. V75.01. February Bulletin. (Holland: Hope College, 1936), 28, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/catalogs/104. 
  [11] 1916. V54.01. May Bulletin., 105.
  [12]  Milestone 1943 (Holland: Hope College, 1943), 70, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/milestone/24.
  [13] Correspondence between Hope College and Army, July 1943-September 1943,  Military Training Programs, records, 1917-1951, (H88-0266), Joint Archives of Holland, Holland, MI. 
  
  

• 1 2021-07-09T12:39:28+00:00 Diversity Statement 15 Diversity Statement plain 2021-08-15T17:39:11+00:00
  

  As a research team, we want to acknowledge the limited scope of our project.

  History is filtered through many biases which silence those without power.  Philosopher and historian Michel-Rolph Troulliot argues that this happens in four stages with the first being in the original recording of documents. The poor, the powerless, and the illiterate are never heard from. The second stage happens when only some documents get archived, as those documents deemed "important" are saved and others are discarded. The third stage of silencing happens when historians choose what archived materials are worthy of research. The fourth stage occurs with the establishment of the canon of historical topics and works. Throughout these steps, people and perspectives are intentionally or accidentally forgotten and silenced [1]. 

  Though students and faculty of varying identities have attended Hope, those with marginalized identities or living at the intersection of multiple identities are more likely to be victims of these biases in the historical record. Therefore, they are marginalized in the archive and in Hope’s history. As a result, most of the women featured in this project are middle to upper-class, White women. This can be seen clearly in trends among the female faculty and students analysis page. Chapters in commissioned chronicles of Hope’s history focus on the White, Dutch, male founders of Hope and Holland. Occasionally, they feature men of color but spend little time considering variations in religious identity, ability, gender identity, and sexuality. Therefore, despite our effort, our project is clearly and frustratingly exclusive. 

  In light of this reality, we hope to provide some context on Hope’s progression towards diversity in the realms of gender, ethnicity, and race. We must be transparent that this short timeline oversimplifies a complex history, but we hope to do it accurately.

  Ottawa Nation

  
  

  Before settlers from the Netherlands came to the area now known as Holland, the land had long been occupied by the Odawa (Ottawa Nation), specifically the Black River Band of Ottawas. Chief Joseph Wakazoo (later Waukazoo) and his tribespeople welcomed the immigrants, though there was much cultural and linguistic confusion. Albertus Van Raalte, the founder of Hope College, and other immigrants founded the city of Holland in 1847, displacing the Odawa. The Ottawa Nation was among other tribes of Native Americans forced to choose by President Andrew Jackson to become settled in reservations on the Western frontier (West of the Mississippi River) or become settled farmers. After the 1830 Indian Removal Act, Michigan tribes surrendered their land to the government. Chief Wakazoo hired Reverend George N. Smith to lead them, and the Ottawa Nation moved to Northport, Michigan, where they had previously spent summers, by 1849 [2].

  It was not until 1924 that the first Native American student graduated from Hope College, though he was not a member of the Ottawa Nation [3]. As a research team and a community, we acknowledge the reality that the creation of Hope and the Dutch immigrants' presence in Holland rested on the removal of the indigenous peoples. As a result, many ancestors of Chief Wakazoo’s tribe are a part of the Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians. They are active today throughout Michigan. 

  Early Graduates of Hope College

  
  

  Hope College’s first matriculating cohorts were male and mostly White. The exceptions were two international students from Japan who graduated from Hope in 1879. Though multiple Japanese students attended Hope, the first to graduate were Kumaji Kimura and Motoichiro Oghimi in 1879. According to Elton J. Bruins, author of Envisioning Hope College: Letters Written by Albertus C. Van Raalte to Philip Phelps Jr. 1857-1875, international students were accepted to Hope under perceived Christian duty and the aspiration that the students would convert to Christianity and evangelize in their home countries. This can be seen in the admittance of Kimura and Motoichiro who were both unconverted before attending Hope, but both served in ministry after matriculating. This is also exemplified in one of Van Raalte’s letters where he wrote, 

  “I rejoice in the increase of the number of Japanese: the Lord may make this Institute, by many of no account felt even far off. - Your wandering in the East is need[ed] and fruitful. - I trust that Mrs Phelps will rejoice in having now in hand three Japanese : So she does do missionary work indeed.” [4]

  Over the next 50 decades, most international students came from locations where the Reformed Church of America had missions such as China, Japan, India, Arabia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Nigeria, Mexico, Korea, and Peru.

  Japanese Women

  
  In 1878, women were first welcomed to Hope. At first, they boarded locally or lived with their parents. When Voorhees Hall was completed in 1907, women were housed there for a time. Though there is not much information on women of color at Hope in the early twentieth century, one Japanese woman is featured in the 1934 Milestone named Setsu Matsunobu. She was from Yokohama, Japan and majored in English. Matsunobu was an active member at Hope, participating in Greek Life (Alethea), International Club, Student Volunteers, Chapel Choir, the Young Women’s Christian Association, and Senior Girl’s Alliance [5].
  
  
  
  Two Japanese women also graduated from Hope in the 1930s. Fumi Watanabe, a resident of Tokyo, graduated in 1931. In the Milestone, she is described as, “Friendly, Free, Firm,” and her hometown is listed as Tokio, Japan [6]. Miyo Tase, a graduate in 1932, participated in Women’s Gospel team, Girl’s Glee Club, Athletic Debt Diggers, Dorian Sorority, and Dorians’ Inter-sorority Basketball Championship Team [7]. Clearly, international women and women of color were important members of the community - though detailed records of their lives have not been saved.

  Bias in Saving Materials

  We can see evidence of the small sampling of what is saved in the archives when comparing  our information available on three students of the late 1920’s and early 1930’s: Japanese international students, Fumi Watanabe and Miyo Tase, and the daughter of missionaries,  Wilhelmina Jean Walvoord. The only information we have on Fumi Watanabe Takenouche and Miyo Tase remains in their matriculate document that notes their general enrollment at Hope as well as their grades, attendance at graduate schools, and possible work after college. Watanabe attended Ferris Seminary in Yokohama, Japan and continued to teach there after graduating. Her records were burned in a fire, after which we have no information on this woman other than her married name, Takenouche [8]. We were unable to find Miyo Tase’s matriculate document. 

  Meanwhile, we have a large history of Wilhelmina Jean Walvoord. Born in Japan in 1909, Walvoord was the daughter of American RCA missionaries in Japan. She and her two sisters were homeschooled in Karuizawa, Japan by her mother until the death of her father in 1919. After his death, the Walvoord family returned to the United States. Wilhelmina was just 10 years old. Her mother became the first matron of Voorhees Hall. After attending school in Holland, Wilhelmina and her sister enrolled at Hope College in the fall of 1926. After her time at Hope, she became a youth director on the east coast until WWII. During the war she worked for the USO and continued with the organization and the YMCA after the war until her retirement in 1979 [9]. Wilhelmina’s entire life story was documented by her cousin, David De Jong in 2009. 

  These three women attended Hope around the same time. Both Walvoord and Tase participated in a number of activities during their time at Hope [10]. However, the histories donated and saved about these women are, sadly, completely different. Wilhelmina, due to her connection through her cousin, David De Jong, had her entire life story written and saved. Her Dutch heritage and connection to the college allowed her story to be completely told. On the other hand, the Joint Archives have precious little information on Watanabe and Tase. Speaking with the Joint Archives of Holland’s Director of Archives, Geoff Reynolds, this may be due to a difference in feeling worthy to donate their information to the Archives [11]. Meanwhile, Watanabe and Tase perhaps did not think their own story worthy of documentation and therefore, did not leave records for the archive. They may not have been invited to do so, and no one else donated materials about them.

  This complex process of what’s saved in the archives limits the sample of experiences  that we are able to examine for our research. The saving of materials from these three women is an example of the flaws in the way that people’s stories have been saved at the Archives throughout the 20th century. Because the Archives is limited to what is donated by family members or individuals, much of the collection remains extremely exclusive. It also demonstrates the difficulty for researchers to get an accurate sample of all student experiences at Hope. 

  The First Native American Student at Hope College

  
  

  In comparison to international diversity, Hope took longer to embrace American racial and ethnic diversity. Nonwhite American students began enrolling in the 1920s. As previously mentioned, the first Native American student was James Collins Ottipoby, a member of the Comanchee nation; he graduated from Hope in 1925. While at Hope, he took a classical course and participated in Greek Life (Cosmopolitan), Home Volunteer, Gospel Team, Football, Baseball, Varsity Basketball, the Monogram Club, and the Hope College Kurfew Klub [12]. After graduating from Hope, Ottipoby attended Western Theological Seminary and became a minister and pastor. During World War II, he was a Chaplain and a Major. Afterwards, he served in the ministry at the Laguna Reservation [13].

  The First African American Student at Hope College

  James Carter Dooley Jr. was the first African American to matriculate from Hope in 1932. He majored in history at Hope. Then, he received a Masters in Education Administration and Supervision from Texas Southern University. He later served as a teacher, assistant principal, pastor, and missionary (graduates program). Carter Dooley's father, James Carter Dooley Sr., founded the Southern Normal School in Brewton, Alabama. That school then became a feeder school to Hope College. Pauline Hendrieth (see below) and many other African American graduates from Hope came from the Southern Normal School [14].

  1951

  Dr. Samuel Lewis, an African American from Brewton, Alabama, graduated from Hope in 1951 with a double major in chemistry and biology on the pre-medical track. He received a doctorate in zoology from Howard University, entered medical school and the U.S. Army. He was employed as a heart disease specialist [15].
  
  
  
  
  

  In 1951, three women of color appear in the 1951 Milestone. Pauline Rosalee Chaat, a Native American student from Oklahoma was a Junior [16]. There is no record of her in the 1952 Milestone, though that does not mean she did not matriculate from Hope. Wynette Devore, an African American student, was a Senior in 1951. She was from Metuchen, New Jersey and majored in English. She was a member of Dorian or Kappa Beta Phi [17]. Lastly, Pauline Hendrieth, an African American student, was also a Senior in 1951. She was from Brewton, Alabama, majored in English, and was a member of Sigma Iota Beta [18]. Pauline Hendrieth and Samuel Williams, a Western Theological Seminary graduate, married and ministered together across the country. Samuel Williams, her husband, started Upward Bound at Hope College which is pre-college preparatory program which serves high school student from families who have low incomes and are first generation college students. He also served as an assistant chaplain for Campus Ministries [19]. As we researched the predominantly White women at Hope in 1930s and 1940s, we hoped to recognize the importance of these women of color's lives in shaping the experiences of all of Hope's future students.

  We do not have many indicators of what daily life was like for minority students at Hope during Hope’s first century, and they certainly must have faced discrimination and many challenges. One positive memory stands out in the record, however. In regards to President Truman’s mission to desegregate the military, Samuel Lewis said  “The only conversations that I heard about segregation and civil rights were students saying that they were hoping that [US president Harry S.] Truman was able to do what he was trying to do. They were not opposed to that. As a matter of fact, they were fine with it.” [20]

  While this quote paints a positive picture, this statement should not negate the struggles and structural problems that minority students have faced and continue to face at Hope. There is still much to do for Hope to be considered an actively anti-racist and diverse institution. The second annual Green lecture on October 15, 2020 at Hope College entitled “To Achieve Our Country: Pathways to an Anti-Racist Future” listed steps forward for Hope College. This includes inclusive worship in our curriculum and co-curriculum, diverse leadership, an overarching goal of diversity, personal skills for students to interact with diverse communities, and using our location in Holland as an asset for building stronger community ties with diverse groups. Dr. Chuck Green argued that these steps were essential to continue progressing towards an inclusive and accepting community atmosphere so all students and faculty feel valued and heard.

  The trials placed on diverse individuals and the biases in what is saved in the Archives throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries were crucial in giving us the sources we have when researching. They have also limited us to exploring the lives of White women at Hope during the 1930s and 1940s.

  Our research includes a focus on the treatment of women in the 30s and 40, and we have found that Hope was not always equitable in its treatment of women, as readers will discover while reading our project. There are also times where the women we are studying here reinforced inaccurate depictions and stereotypes (see above). Researching the diversity of Hope has allowed us to understand the systems and background from Hope's history that continue to perpetuate divisions today. We also learned more about the relevance of our project and places where future research can be done to investigate the treatment and experiences of other diverse groups.

  
  References:
  [1] Trevor Getz, Abina and the Important Men: A Graphic History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 139-1940.
  [2] Robert P. Swierenga and William Van Appledorn, ed., Old Wing Mission : Cultural Interchange as Chronicled by George and Arvilla Smith in Their Work with Chief Wakazoo’s Ottawa Band on the West Michigan Frontier (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub., 2008), xviii-3.
  [3] Milestone 1925 (Holland: Hope College, 1925), 41, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/milestone/42. 
  [4]  Elton J. Bruins and Karen G. Schakel, ed. Envisioning Hope College: Letters Written by Albertus C. Van Raalte to Philip Phelps Jr. 1857-1875 (Holland: Van Raalte Press, 2011), 263-264.
  [5] Milestone 1934 (Holland: Hope College, 1934), 35, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/milestone/15.
  [6] Milestone 1930 (Holland: Hope College, 1930), 72, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/milestone/17.
  [7] Milestone 1930, 132, 137, 163, 188, 221.
  [8] “Takenouche, Mrs.,” September 13, 1930, Matriculate Files.
  [9] David De Jong, “Billie Walvoord”: Wilhelmina Jean Walvoord, 2009, Walvoord, Wilhelmina “Billie” J. (1909-1987). Papers, 2009 (W12-0121.6), Joint Archives of Holland, Hope College, Holland, MI. 
  [10] David De Jong, “Billie Walvoord”: Wilhelmina Jean Walvoord, 2009, Walvoord, Wilhelmina “Billie” J. (1909-1987). Papers, 2009 (W12-0121.6).; Milestone 1930, 132, 137, 163, 188, 221. 
  [11] Reynolds, Geoff, July 15, 2021. 
  [12] Milestone 1925, 41.
  [13] Hope: Portraits of Early Graduates (Holland, International and Multicultural Education: 2013), 9. 
  [14] Hope: Portraits of Early Graduates, 11.
  [15] Dafina-Lazarus Stewart, Black Collegians’ Experiences in US Northern Private Colleges: A Narrative History, 1945-1965 (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 220.
  [16] Milestone 1951 (Holland: Hope College, 1951), 56, https://digitalcommons.hope.edu/milestone/43.
  [17] Milestone 1951, 41.
  [18] Milestone 1951, 44. 
  [19] “Distinguished Alumni of 2000,” The Commons, June 2000, 1.
  [20] Stewart, Black Collegians’ Experiences, 146.